Curriculum Evaluation Models: Their Use In My Milieu

Summary of Articles

September 2021

Blakemore S.J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 47. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x

From this article, the biggest takeaway I got is that even though adolescents act like adults many times and they seem to have high levels of cognitive functioning, they are still developing in the areas of brain capacity, behavior and cognition (Blake more and Choudhury, 2006). In other words, they are not yet fully capable of using cognition and brain capacity to regulate behaviour in the way adults can. Additionally, adolescents are dealing with massive levels of hormone secretions that affect their mood and physical development while their prefrontal cortex is increasingly able to fire at higher speeds through the process of myelination (ibid). The prefrontal cortex and the parietal cortex continue to grow into adolescence and the authors posit that these areas affect executive function, the name given to the process of control and coordinate thoughts and behaviour (ibid). The authors propose that different executive functions may have varied trajectories as some follow a linear trajectory of improvement while others do not.

Implications for teaching is that teachers need to work hard to remember that their adolescent students are not always able to control their reactions or behavior. I believe every teacher is exposed to the concept of the Pygmalion effect during training and thus understands the massive effect teacher attitude has on student success. If teachers can adopt the attitude of friendliness within limits, be reasonable and democratic, they can impact their adolescent success positively (Nobel coaching and tutoring, 2019). To maintain this attitude teachers can be deliberate about looking for the good and positive things in each child, being aware of your effect/behavior,

reconsidering your treatment of challenging students and try to give more positive treatment to those you would rather ignore (Nobel coaching and tutoring, 2019). With respect to the curriculum, students need individualized teaching strategies embodied in UDL to succeed and develop the 21st century skill set required of them in the workplace (Stanford & Reeves, 2009)

Fischer, K. W.  (1980, November).  A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills.  Psychological Review 87(6), 1-55.  https://www.gse.harvard.edu/~ddl/articlesCopy/FischerTheoryCognDev1980_old.pdf

Skill theory holds that cognitive development results from dynamic interaction between the person and their environment (Fischer, 1980). In other words, a person’s cognition is dependent on the environment in which they are raised and the various manners in which the individual acts, interacts, reacts and adjusts to the multitude of stimuli in the environment. The takeaway for me here is the acknowledgement that the environment is a prominent factor in how people develop mental fortitude and personality to succeed in their daily life activities. The readings for last week that focused on adolescent mental and physical health had me thinking constantly about the role of context on some of the issues discussed. In Sierra Leone, West Africa where I grew up, girls do not shave their legs nor is it odd to start puberty later. In fact, the common saying is that those who enter puberty in their later teen years will remain forever young. For this reason, skill theory speaks to me. The theory holds that skill is built in a hierarchical manner, step-by-step, through four tiers 1. reflexes, 2. actions, 3. representations, and 4. abstractions. Each tier consists of four levels, however, there is some overlap between each tier with the top level in each tier also being the first level of the next tier (Fischer, 1980). The theory reminds us that in real life situations humans show a range of cognition and that cognition is not static but changes with context (Murphy, 2013).

Implications for teaching would impact quite strongly on a common discussion among teachers

about why a particular student seems drastically different with different teachers. It is not hard to imagine that when students feel accepted, valued and respected their attitude is more positive and they are motivated to work hard (Heller & Swinehart-Jones, 2003). Additionally, I see this theory as supporting the teaching strategies that employ scaffolding techniques like using pictures or videos, tapping into students’ prior knowledge, pre teaching useful vocabulary and employing small group and peer-to-peer learning as successful strategies that make use of the hierarchical learning, overlap and tiering.

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989, November). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18 (8), pp. 4-10.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1176460.pdf?casa_token=l9PFNGIWeYMAAAAA:Nht3ps8qQ_3YpyWn732lh-oZ0XCmmNr0EdRgiDS9Fg--7B6gCt1x5GRPLTXeACtNWsqTbsa7RbqgXM9oS9mXURs1NjNI8BSdSccaSYmYj3QJJGfMpnA

Gardner’s definition of intelligence as “biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture” (Gardner, 2000, p.28) appeals to me greatly because of the obvious inclusion and consideration of diverse populations and world views. Gardner posits that the human mind is modular and that the various components of intelligence are partially autonomous but also interact to a certain extent (Gardner and Hatch, 1989). He believed that people could develop intelligences that they had not been born with but that based on genetics or experience, one or more intelligences may become pronounced while the others remain less so (Marenus, 2020). This theory even made room for the possibility of other intelligences not mentioned (Gardner, 2000). Gardner’s multiple intelligences appeals to me because while reading the assigned articles, I found myself thinking how ethnocentric and one-sided much of what we are taught is. As I mentioned in

the discussion forum, a graduate program for me should open students up to more world views and help legitimize them in the process. I am forever looking for alternate voices to the dominant western voices but I find precious few in my research. Gardner’s multiple intelligences in my mind makes room for diversity in that it opens the possibility that even though what is valued and thus developed as intelligence in one context may not be valued in another context and not developed, every context has room to lay claim to intelligence. Multiple intelligences theory answers the question of who is intelligent from all backgrounds, allowing diverse people to lay claim to intelligence and not be told or defined by others’ definition of intelligence.

Implications in teaching will be realized as teachers become more cognisant of diverse voices in their classrooms and make effort to hear them and have others hear them. This is the crux of what an inclusive classroom is all about, a classroom where all students, regardless of abilities or lack thereof, can feel they belong because their voices are heard and their learning needs are anticipated and met.

John-Steiner, V., & Mahn, H. (2012. December). Sociocultural approaches to learning and development: A Vygotskian Framework. Educational Psychologist, 31(3/4), 191-206. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Holbrook_Mahn/publication/233858618_Sociocultural_Approaches_to_Learning_and_Development-A_Vygotskian_Framework/links/0fcfd50c3d30ccc22e000000.pdf

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory holds that human activities do not occur in isolation but are encased within cultural contexts, mediated by language and other symbols and understood in historical context (John-Steiner & Mahn, 2012). This interaction of human activities is characterized by three main themes of individual development, human action on social and individual planes and genetic and developmental analysis (ibid). The theory posits that learning happens first through social interaction and second through individual internalization of social

behaviors. My main takeaway from this theory is the emphasis that learning happens and is influenced by social interactions and therefore teachers must have and create opportunities for social interactions with their students if they are going to be the facilitators of learning. Additionally, people learn by internalizing what they see, observe and interact with, meaning increased exposure to certain events increases the probability of internalizing (believing and subscribing to) those events. Moreover, the theory reminds us that adolescents are active learners in that the internalizing involves processes of thinking and meditating on concepts to come up with new ideas or construction of knowledge (John-Steiner & Mahn, 2012).

The implications for teaching are incredible as the demands of the profession are changing fast. When I was a high school student some forty plus years ago, teachers were never meant to interact with students outside of teaching and office hours time. By the time I entered university, I found myself interacting with instructors in both the classroom and varsity events and I realized I grew a liking for those instructors and did better in their classes. Teachers need to interact with students as the current learning environment requires to enable students to learn. Additionally, there is no denying that diversity is on the rise around the world which necessitates teaching strategies that address all students not just those familiar with our American teaching status quo. Another phenomenon I was quite aware of growing up is the fact that I was usually the only black student among a very few visible minorities in the classroom throughout, and even in university. That is rarely the case now and teachers need to adapt their teaching styles to build an inclusive classroom that embraces all students’ needs because our ways of thinking are influenced by the thought patterns of those around us (John-Steiner & Mahn, 2012).

Mirza, H. (2008). Race, gender and educational desire: Why black women succeed and fail. Download the PDF

Much of the information contained in this introduction is not news to me as a black, racialized woman living the experiences of the intersectionality of race, gender and educational experiences. What I did find was that the book gave words and descriptions of some experiences for which I had no words. Mirza (2008) mentions that it was a privilege to write from a hegemonic and self-reflective point of view and I applaud her for this because it lends authenticity to the claims made in the book. My takeaway here is that Black and other racialized women surmount incredible odds is multiple facets/intersections in their lives simply by being alive! Regimes of power and dominance dictate every aspect of their lives and thus their lived experiences must be seen as legitimate interpretations of the social world they inhabit as these experiences demonstrate the ways in which “regulatory discursive power and privilege
are ‘performed’ or exercised in the everyday material world of the socially
constructed ‘black woman’” (Mirza, 2008 p. 6). Something that still surprises me is the propagation of ideas of race-based differential intelligence and the dangerous and deleterious consequences for education of Black and other racialized women that continue to entrench the inequalities and inequities experienced by Black and racialized women’s experiences in the intersections of race, gender and educational barriers.

Mirza (2008) already identified streaming of students as a concern with respect to Black women’s success. I will add that the stereotypes of loud, angry, ghetto, ugly, strong/masculine, poor, activist, single and hypersexual make it difficult for the black adolescent female to succeed as she cannot easily fit in and belong, an important determinant of school success. Teachers need to pay special attention to their Black female students to encourage them to get involved, and also to watch for bullying or ostracizing among their peers so it can be addressed.

Sanders, R. A. (2013). Adolescent psychosocial, social, and cognitive development. Pediatrics in Review, 34(8), 354–359.

https://renaissance.stonybrookmedicine.edu/sites/default/files/Adolescent%20Psychosocial%20Cog%20Development.pdf

This paper postulates that adolescents cognitive and psychosocial development is not uniform and that this incongruent development of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial abilities results in a limited ability to effectively perceive and judge risk which tends to put them at odds with concerned adults in their lives (Sanders, 2013). The article also draws attention to the fact that knowledge of risk is not a deterrent for youth to engage in risk taking behavior but may even be the opposite as youth gain satisfaction from the exhilarations of risky behavior (ibid).

Implications for teaching is that teachers need to remember that their students, who may look like adults are still developing and that an open and democratic approach, hallmarks of the inclusive classroom, are the best sociocultural strategy to employ (ibid). This strategy extends into teaching in the form of providing students with choices in demonstrating their learning.

7. Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010, December). Vygotsky's zone of proximal development: Instructional implications and teachers' professional development. English Language Teaching, 3 (4), 237-248.  https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1081990.pdf

Vygotsky defined the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as the difference between what a student can do unassisted (actual development level) and what s/he can do with guidance (potential development level). For students to reach their potential development level, a lesson that is a little difficult for independent completion must be presented to them and worked on with the help of teachers or more knowledgeable student who will use scaffolding or guided instruction to assist in lesson completion (Shabani, Khatib & Ebadi, 2010). Thus, we see that the ZPD brings into play

the three concepts of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, Vygotsky’s More Knowledgeable Other and Bruner’s Scaffolding (Drew, 2019). My takeaway is that there is a space within which students’ minds are optimized to learn which is enhanced through peer learning or guided learning, but that this space does not occur at the same time in all students during a lesson.

Implications for teaching is that teachers must be prepared to recognize that space, often characterized by confusion accompanied by clarifying questions from students, and, activate it. This means letting go of rigid teaching techniques and being flexible enough to adjust lesson plans in the middle of the lesson, employing differentiated teaching techniques to appeal to dominant learning preferences and being open to responding to students’ questions in various ways. It also means making room for students to demonstrate their learning in varied ways.

References

Marenus, M. (2020, June 9). Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences | simply psychology. Retrieved September 7, 2021, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/multiple-intelligences.html

Murphy, R. S. (2013). Dynamic skill theory. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from http://fab-efl.com/onlinelearning/page21/page19/index.html

Nobel Coaching and Tutoring. (2019, January 30). The pygmalion effect – how teachers’ expectations affect students’ achievement. Helping students, families, and individuals grow - Nobel Coaching & Tutoring. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://nobelcoaching.com/pygmalion-effect/

Stanford, B., & Reeves, S. (2009). Making it happen: Using differentiated instruction, retrofit framework, and universal design for learning. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 5(6), 1-9. 

Heller, K.W., & Swinehart-Jones, D. (2003). Supporting the educational needs of students with orthopedic impairments. Physical Disabilities: Education and Related Services, v22 n1, 3-24.  ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ678650

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